Radio Film Television Booth - Entertainment Management Expo - Class of 2007

RADIO

Radio is the wireless transmission of signals, by modulation of electromagnetic waves with frequencies below those of visible light. Electromagnetic radiation travels by means of oscillating electromagnetic fields that pass through the air and the vacuum of space. It does not require a medium of transport. Information is carried by systematically changing (modulating) some property of the radiated waves, such as their amplitude or their frequency. . This can be detected and transformed into sound or other signals that carry information.

TELEVISION

Television is a widely used telecommunication system for broadcasting and receiving moving pictures and sound over a distance from all around the world. The term may also be used to refer specifically to a television set, programming or television transmission. The word is derived from mixed Latin and Greek roots, meaning "far sight": Greek tele (τῆλε), far, and Latin vision, sight (from video, vis- to see, or to view in the first person).

FILM

Film is a term that encompasses individual motion pictures, the field of film as an art form, and the motion picture industry. Films are produced by recording images from the world with cameras, or by creating images using animation techniques or special effects. Film is considered to be an important art form, a source of popular entertainment, and a powerful method for educating -or indoctrinating- citizens. The visual elements of cinema give motion pictures a universal power of communication; some movies have become popular worldwide attractions, by using dubbing or subtitles that translate the dialogue.

HISTORY OF RADIO JAMAICA

The history of Radio Jamaica is extricably bound with the origin of radio broadcasting in Jamaica. Radio broadcasting began in 1939. The first station, VP5PZ, was madepossible through the use of the equipment of a local 'ham' operator named John Grinan,who, in compliance with wartime regulations, handed his equipment over to theGovernment.Mr. Grinan succeeded in convincing the Government to use his equipment to operate apublic broadcasting station; and the amateur equipment was adapted to the demandsof broadcasting, and regular scheduled broadcasts began on November 17, 1939, usingMr. Grinads call-sign, VP5PZ.Initially, there was one broadcast per week, lasting one hour from Mr. Grinan's home at2 Seaview Avenue, St Andrew; but after May 1, 1940, a small staff was employed anddaily broadcasts began on June 3, 1940.

Despite the small and inadequate facilities, the station improved with each broadcast;and with the appointment of Dennis Gick as Programme Manager, the fare offered soonwent beyond news and wartime information, to include live performances of localartistes. ZQI, as the station became known in 1940, broadcasted for 10 years.Under the weight of public criticism at the high cost of running the station, decision wastaken by the Government to issue a license to a private company to providebroadcasting services. A license was granted in 1949 to the Jamaica BroadcastingCompany, a subsidiary of the Re-diffusion Group, London.This license gave the company the right to operate regular broadcasting and rediffusionservices, and the Jamaica Broadcasting Company took over the operations ofZQI on May 1, 1950.

Commercial broadcasting began on July 9, 1950, using the callsign,"Radio Jamaica and the Re-diffusion Network", and the well-known RJR was born!The new company was given a mandate to cover the entire island with radiobroadcasting. To ensure that rural dwellers could become oriented to Radio, thecompany distributed wireless receiving sets to some 200 designated listening poststhroughout the island. These were points where people naturally gathered, such asschools, police station and village stores. An important aspect of the license granted toRadio Jamaica was that it was to be a commercial radio station. This meant that radiotime would be costed and advertisers would pay according to the time used for theiradvertisements.Radio programmes were also to be sponsored by companies, and these two meanswere to be the station's only source of income. The Jamaican radio audience, thoughpreviously informed, reacted with shock and dismay after July 9 when theirprogrammes began to be interrupted with advertisements!The station was to weather a stormy period of public outcry, with the listeners beggingfor an end to commercial radio, declaring that the ads made them want to smash theirradio sets! In the face of this opposition, Radio Jamaica introduced programmes whichwere to prove popular.

There were radio dramas - in fact, there were no less than eightradio dramas presented weekly in 1960; popular music; and money-winning quizshows.Very soon, RJR, as the station was affectionately known, became a household word.In August 195 1, the station was moved from its original Seaview Avenue location towhat was described at the time as "the modem air-conditioned and excellentlyequipped studio premises" at 32 Lyndhurst Road in Kingston.A significant step was taken in 1953 when frequency modulated transmitters wereinstalled at Coleyville and Tinson Pen. This was a historic event, as Radio Jamaica wasthe first country in the British Commonwealth to broadcast regular scheduledprogrammes on the FM band.To increase the reach of Radio, as well as to increase income, a Re-diffusion servicewas inaugurated in February 1951, under the management of Re-diffusion Limited, adivision of the Jamaica Broadcasting Company Limited to provide a special service ofprogrammes transmitted by wire. The service was carried to homes, departmentstores, bars, hotels, police stations and proved very popular.One of the important aspects of this service was that it offered complete coverage ofnational events. By 1958, it was being enjoyed by 15,000 subscribers.When the Government decided to operate its own public broadcasting station, to benamed the Jamaica Broadcasting Corporation, the name of Radio Jamaica was formallychanged to that of Radio Jamaica Limited, the name by which it is known today.Another service introduced by the company was Reditune, which started in 1962,featuring a special tape machine which provided non-stop music of all varieties.Reditune gave way later to the more sophisticated, Musipage, which provided livemusic, instead of tapes, broadcast from the station to the subscribers - mostlybusiness houses.

One of the constant goals of the station during its 40-year life has been the providingof a total broadcasting service to the nation.To this end, Radio Jamaica introduced a second daily transmission in 1972 on the FMband. It was called RJR-FM or Capital Stereo, and filled a need for soothing,uninterrupted music. This service met with such success that in April 1984, thedecision was taken to develop it further. A new station was formed using the call-signFAME-FM - the first part of the name being an acronym for Fraternity of AmazingMusical Expression.FAME has been a pace-setter, developing programmes which, while playing soothingmusic, also gives the listener an opportunity to meet the personalities selecting therecords.The experience of 40 years has prepared the company for the latest innovation in itsbid to supply complete broadcasting service.

This is Simulcast Broadcasting, which hasbeen hailed as a brilliant development and which has been successfully used to coversporting events, such as the 1990 International Test cricket series, and the annualBudget Debate in the House of Representatives.ACQUISITION OF TELEVISION AND RADIO 2 ASSETSIn keeping with the company's strategic plan for growth and development into a highlyprofitable media house Radio Jamaica Limited (RJR) acquired the Television and Radio2 assets of the Jamaica Broadcasting Corporation (JBC) from the Government ofJamaica, for an amount of J$70m. The major terms of the contract betweengovernment and Radio Jamaica Limited are as follows:! RJR has bought the studio, engineering and transmission equipment ofJBC Radio 2 and JBC TV, along with the transmitters owned by JBC. RJRwill also take over leases on leased transmitter sites.! RJR will have access to JBC's video and audio archives for a period of 12years and may incorporate material from the archives in its ownprogrammes without being liable for licence fees.South Odeon Avenue has not been bought but RJR will occupy it for 18months, while new studios are being built.Since the acquisition on June 12, 1997 an interim management company, RJRInterim Management Services Limited, has been put in place.

The new namefor the television station is Television Jamaica Limited.It has been a challenging task to date as we attempt to address the criticalneed for re-equipping the television station. In the short term we are beingdogged by technical challenges, which based on our implementationprogramme, should be corrected by June 1998 when our new equipment will befully installed. The objective of our strategic management plan is to ensure thatour viewers will receive the best service over the long run.Radio 2 is now located at Broadcast House at our Lyndhurst Road Office andhas settled in well with plans in place to take it to greater heights.

FILM-MAKING IN JAMAICA

The major Hollywood studios have had a history of filming in Jamaica. The earliest records trace a Twentieth Century Fox production in 1915 where animals of every kind were brought to Jamaica for the film ‘Daughters of the Gods’

Today the tradition continues with contemporary sophistication. Early film-makers found the right locations and atmosphere for their films, but always there were skilled crews and talented actors.

Importantly, many international film practitioners have made Jamaica their home, including the famous Errol Flynn, who bought Navy Island off the coast of Port Antonio, thereby encouraging and influencing many other film-makers to come to Jamaica.

The island has not only had excellent reputation as the right film location but also varied cultural experience which has produced its own stars in music and film. Jamaicans have contributed their creative skills in the making of international productions as well as making their own movies.


Films Shot in Jamaica



Dr. No
United Artists/EON GB - - 1962
Stars:Sean Connery, Ursula Andress, Jack Lord, Joseph Wiseman



Eureka
MGM Pictures - 1981
Stars:Gene Hackman, Mickey Rourke, Jane Lapotaire, Therisa Russell



Going to Extremes
ABC TV Series - 1993
Stars:Carl Lumbley, Andrew Lauer, Joanna Going, June Chadwick, Erika Alexandra



Golden Eye
Anglin Television Films & Drama Ltd - 1989
Stars:Charles Dance



Hammerhead
Filmustang SLR Italy - 1988

How Stella Got Her Groove Back
Twentieth Century Fox - 1998
Stars:Whoopi Goldberg, Angella Bassett



In Like Flint
TCF USA - 1967
Stars:James Cobum, Lee J. Cobb, Jean Hall, Andrew Duggan



In Like Flynn
Astrol Film Entertainment CAN - 1985
Stars:Jenny Seagrove



Instinct
Silverback Productions/Walt Disney Studios - 1998
Stars:Anthony Hopkins, Cuba Gooding, Jnr.



Island In The Sun
TCF GB - 1957
Stars:James Mason, Joan Fontaine, Harry Belafonte, Dorothy Dandridge, Joan Collins
Films Shot in Jamaica



KLA$H
Kingston Pictures Limited - 1994
Stars:Giancarlo Esposito, Jasmine Guy



Legends of the Fall
Tri-Star Pictures - 1993
Stars:Sir Anthony Hopkins, Brad Pitt



Lord of the Flies
Castle Rock Entertainment USA Signal Hill Productions JA - 1988
Stars:Michael Green



Marked for Death
Twentieth Century Fox - 1990
Stars:Steven Seagal, Joanna Pacula



Milk and Honey
Cineflics/JA Film Co. Inc. CAN - 1988
Stars:Josette Simon

Otto - The Film
Rialto Films W. GER - 1985
Stars:Otto Walker



Papillon
Papillon Partnership/Corona/General Production Co. USA - 1973
Stars:Steve McQueen, Dustin Hoffman, Don Gordon



Passion and Paradise
Prime Media Canada, Picture Base Int'l. UK. ABC USA - 1989
Stars:Rod Steiger, Amand Assante, Marriette Hartley, Catherine Stewart, Wayne Rogers, Michael Sarrazin



Passionate Summer
Rank/Kenneth Harper GB - 1958
Stars:Virginia McKenna, Bill Travers, Yvonne Mitchell



Popcorn
Movie Partners/Century Films/Studio Three Film Corp. - 1989
Stars:om Villard, Jill Schoelen, Dee Wallace Stone, Tony Roberts




Prelude to a Kiss
Twentieth Century Fox - 1991
Stars:Alec Baldwin, Meg Ryan



Return to Treasure Island
HTV Ltd. Wales/Walt Disney Television USA - 1985
Stars:Brian Blessed



Sankofa
Negod - Gwad Productions - 1990
Stars:Mutabaruka



Scam
Viacom Pictures - 1992
Stars:Christopher Walken, Lorraine Bracco



Shattered Image
FireCorp II/7 Arts Entertainment - 1998
St

Smile Orange
Nuts Production - 1973
Stars:Carl Bradshaw, Glen Morrison



The Harder They Come
Vista Film Production JA - 1972
Stars:Jimmy Cliff



The House Next Door
Blue Mountains Film Limited - 1995
Stars:Sheryl Lee Ralph



The Lunatic
Intrepid Productions/Island Pictures/World Films - 1990
Stars:Paul Campbell, Julie T. Wallace



The Man Who Knew Too Little
Warner Brothers/Stella Pictures - 1997
Stars:Bill Murray, Joanne Walley

The Mercenaries; aka Dark of the Sun
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) - 1968
Stars:Rod Taylor, Yvete Minieux, Jim Brown



The Mighty Quinn
MGM/A&M USA - 1989
Stars:Denzel Washington, Robert Townsend, Sheryl Lee-Ralph



Third World Cop
Island Jamaica - 1998
Stars:Paul Campbell



Treasure Island
MFS Film Ltd./Turner Network Television - 1989
Stars:Charlton Heston, Christian Bale, Oliver Reed
Wide Sargasso Sea
New Line Cinema - 1991
Stars:Rachel Ward, Michael York
Films Shot in Jamaica
Clara's Heart
Marty Elfand Productions/Warner Bros. USA - 1985
Stars:Whoopi Goldberg, Kathleen Quinlan, Michael Onktean



Club Paradise
Warner Bros. USA - 1985
Stars:Peter O'Toole, Robin Williams, Twiggy



Cocktail
Touchstone/Walt Disney Pictures USA - 1987
Stars:Tom Cruise, Bryan Brown, Elizabeth Shue



Countryman
Island Pictures - 1984
Stars:Carl Bradshaw



Dancehall Queen
Island Pictures - 1996
Stars:Audrey Ried, Paul Campbell, Carl Davis

20,000 Leagues Under The Sea
Walt Disney Pictures USA - 1954
Stars:Kirk Douglas, James Mason, Paul Lukas, Peter Lorre



A High Wind in Jamaica
TCF GB - 1965
Stars:Deborah Baxter, Anthony Quinn, James Coburn



All The Brothers Were Valiant
MGM, USA - 1953
Stars:Stewart Granger, Robert Taylor, Ann Blythe



Belly
Streetlife Productions - 1998
Stars:DMX, T-Boyz, Nas



Children of Babylon
Mediamix/Rainbow Productions - 1979
Stars:Tobi Phillips, Bob Andy

One Love
Stars: Kymani Marley, Cherine Anderson

License to Wed
Stars: Robin Williams, Mandy Moore (2007)


About the Film Commission

The Jamaica Film Commission was established in 1984, and forms part of Jamaica Trade & Invest (JTI/JAMPRO), the investment and export arm of the Government, and is mandated to promote Jamaica's Film industry. This mandate requires the facilitation of activities to increase investment, export, employment and foreign exchange earnings.

It is globally recognised that Jamaica is one of the most naturally attractive locations for filming. While overseas filmmakers have been coming to the island since the early 1900s, it was only during the 1980s when the island instituted a targeted plan to attract "Hollywood" to Jamaica, that there was a drastic increase in the number and types of film projects shot here.

The critical importance of the local industry cannot be overlooked, as any nation with an interest in preserving a legacy and a culture has to recognise the intrinsic importance of the local filmmaker. Jamaica's prolific theatre community keeps a cadre of local actors and actresses employed year-round. While not a generous source of revenue, the genre satisfies the creative appetite, and keeps the craft honed for participation in larger more rewarding projects such as "Dancehall Queen" or "Third World Cop."

The Commission's role in relation to the Film industry is to:

• Promote and market investment opportunities in areas like studio facilities, themed entertainment and venues;
  



• Lobby for incentives to support sector development, increased investments, the creation of venture capital funds, and other low interest financing options.
  



• Administer existing incentives for production companies both local and overseas to increase investment, job creation and foreign exchange;
  



• Marketing and Promotion of Jamaica as the PREMIER location for filming;
  



• Provision of a comprehensive service for all filmmakers in production or location scouting on the island;
  



• Liaison between government agencies, private sector companies and the production;
  



• Recommend and oversee changes and updates to the Motion Picture Industry Encouragement Act, which provides incentives to production;
  



• Provide linkages between overseas providers of market opportunities (i.e. script requests, film festival opportunities etc.) and local industry personnel;
  



• Organization and facilitation of a national presence at film industry trade shows in order to promote the island as a premier location, and to create business linkages for Jamaica's local industry;
  



• Lobby for the creation of venture capital investment funds for the further development of the industry;
  



• Develop and facilitate the process of bi-lateral trade agreements within the global film industry, in order to provide increased opportunities for funding to the local industry (i.e. production treaties).

The Broadcasting Industry - Radio & Television

The broadcasting industry consists of radio and television stations and networks that create content or acquire the right to broadcast taped television and radio programs. Networks transmit their signals from broadcasting studios via satellite signals to local stations or cable distributors. Broadcast signals then travel over cable television lines, satellite distribution systems, or the airwaves from a station’s transmission tower to the antennas of televisions and radios. Anyone in the signal area with a radio or television can receive the programming. Most Americans receive their television broadcasts through cable and other pay television providers. Although cable television stations and networks are included in this statement, cable and other pay television distributors are classified in the telecommunications industry. (See the statement on telecommunications elsewhere in the Career Guide.)

Radio and television stations and networks broadcast a variety of programs, such as national and local news, talk shows, music programs, movies, other entertainment, and advertisements. Stations produce some of these programs, most notably news programs, in their own studios; however, much of the programming is produced outside the broadcasting industry. Establishments that produce filmed or taped programming for radio and television stations and networks—but do not broadcast the programming—are in the motion picture industry. Many television networks own production companies that produce their many shows. (A statement on the motion picture and video industry appears elsewhere in the Career Guide.)
Cable and other program distributors compensate local television stations and cable networks for rebroadcast rights. For popular cable networks and local television stations, distributors pay a fee per subscriber and/or agree to broadcast a less popular channel owned by the same network. Revenue for radio and television stations and networks also comes from the sale of advertising time. The rates paid by advertisers depend on the size and characteristics (age, gender, and median income, among others) of a program’s audience. Educational and noncommercial stations generate revenue primarily from donations by individuals, foundations, government, and corporations. These stations generally are owned and managed by public broadcasting organizations, religious institutions, or school systems.

Changes in Federal Government regulation and communication technology have affected the broadcast industry. The Telecommunications Act of 1996 relaxed ownership restrictions, an action that has had a tremendous impact on the industry. Instead of owning only one radio station per market, companies can now purchase up to eight radio stations in a single large market. These changes have led to a large-scale consolidation of radio stations. In some areas, five FM and three AM radio stations are owned by the same company and share the same offices. The ownership of commercial radio stations is increasingly concentrated. In television, owners are permitted two stations in larger markets and are restricted in the total number of stations nationwide (in terms of percent of all viewers).

The U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is a proponent of digital television (DTV), a technology that uses digital signals to transmit television programs. Digital signals consist of pieces of simple electronic code that can carry more information than conventional analog signals. This code allows for the transmission of better quality sound and higher resolution pictures, often referred to as high-definition television (HDTV). FCC regulations require all stations to broadcast digital signals as well as conventional analog signals. The current goal of the FCC is to have all stations stop broadcasting analog signals by 2007. However, because of the number of viewers who do not yet own television sets that are compatible with DTV, full implementation of the change from analog to digital broadcasting may take longer. After the switch is complete, any viewers using an analog TV and over-the-air signals will need a converter box to change the signal from digital to analog. Most television stations are currently broadcasting digital signals in response to FCC regulations. Many digital cable systems and satellite television providers already broadcast all their channels digitally, with some channels in high definition.

The transition to HDTV broadcasting has also accelerated the conversion of other aspects of television and radio production from analog to digital. Many stations have replaced specialized hardware with less specialized computers equipped with software that performs the same functions. Stations may use digital cameras, edit with computers, and store video on computer servers. Many major network shows now use HDTV cameras and editing equipment.
The transition to digital broadcasting also is occurring in radio. Most stations already store music, edit clips, and broadcast their analog signals with digital equipment. Satellite radio services, which offer 100 channels of digital sound, operate on a subscription basis, like pay television services. To compete, some radio stations are embedding a digital signal into their analog signals. With a specially equipped radio, these digital services offer better quality sound and display some limited text, such as the title of the song and the artist.

Working Conditions
Most employees in this industry work in clean, comfortable surroundings in broadcast stations and studios. Some employees work in the production of shows and broadcasting while other employees work in advertising, sales, promotions, and marketing.
Television news teams made up of reporters, camera operators, and technicians travel in electronic news-gathering vehicles to various locations to cover news stories. Although such location work is exciting, some assignments, such as reporting on military conflicts or natural disasters, may be dangerous. These assignments may also require outdoor work under adverse weather conditions.

Camera operators working on such news teams must have the physical stamina to carry and set up their equipment. Broadcast technicians on electronic news-gathering trucks must ensure that the mobile unit’s antenna is correctly positioned for optimal transmission quality and to prevent electrocution from power lines. Field service engineers work on outdoor transmitting equipment and may have to climb poles or antenna towers; their work can take place under a variety of weather conditions. Broadcast technicians who maintain and set up equipment may have to do heavy lifting. Technological changes have enabled camera operators also to fulfill the tasks of broadcast technicians, operating the transmission and editing equipment on a remote broadcasting truck. News operations, programming, and engineering employees work under a great deal of pressure in order to meet deadlines. As a result, these workers are likely to experience varied or erratic work schedules, often working on early morning or late evening news programs.

Sales workers may face stress meeting sales goals. Aside from sometimes erratic work schedules, management and administrative workers typically find themselves in an environment similar to any other office.

For many people, the excitement of working in broadcasting compensates for the demanding nature of the work. Although this industry is noted for its high pressure and long hours, the work is generally not hazardous.
Employment
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Broadcasting provided about 327,000 wage and salary jobs in 2004. Although more than half of all establishments employed fewer than 10 people, most jobs were in large establishments; about 73 percent of all jobs were in establishments with at least 50 employees (chart 1). Broadcasting establishments are found throughout the country, but jobs in larger stations are concentrated in large cities.

Occupations in the Industry

Occupations at large broadcast stations and networks fall into five general categories: Program production, news-related, technical, sales, and general administration. At small stations, jobs are less specialized, and employees often perform several functions. Although on-camera or on-air positions are the most familiar occupations in broadcasting, the majority of employment opportunities are behind the scenes (table 1).
Program production occupations. Most television programs are produced by the motion picture and video industry; actors, directors, and producers working on these prerecorded programs are not employed by the broadcasting industry. Employees in program production occupations at television and radio stations create programs such as news, talk, and music shows.
Assistant producers provide clerical support and background research; assist with the preparation of musical, written, and visual materials; and time productions to make sure that they do not run over schedule. Assistant producers also may operate cameras and other audio and video equipment.
Video editors select and assemble pretaped video to create a finished program, applying sound and special effects as necessary. Conventional editing requires assembling pieces of videotape in a linear fashion to create a finished product. The editor first assembles the beginning of the program, and then, works sequentially towards the end. Newer computerized editing allows an editor to electronically cut and paste video segments. This electronic technique is known as nonlinear editing because the editor is no longer restricted to working sequentially; a segment may be moved at any time to any location in the program.

Producers plan and develop live or taped productions, determining how the show will look and sound. They select the script, talent, sets, props, lighting, and other production elements. Producers also coordinate the activities of on-air personalities, production staff, and other personnel. Web site or Internet producers, a relatively new occupation in the broadcasting industry, plan and develop Internet sites that provide news updates, program schedules, and information about popular shows. These producers decide what will appear on the Internet sites, and design and maintain them.

Announcers read news items and provide other information, such as program schedules and station breaks for commercials or public service information. Many radio announcers are referred to as disc jockeys; they play recorded music on radio stations. Disc jockeys may take requests from listeners; interview guests; and comment on the music, weather, or traffic. Most stations now have placed all of their advertisements, sound bites, and music on a computer, which is used to select and play or edit the items. Technological advances have simplified the monitoring and adjusting of the transmitter, leaving disc jockeys responsible for most of the tasks associated with keeping a station on the air. Traditional tapes and CDs are used only as backups in case of a computer failure. Announcers and disc jockeys need a good speaking voice; the latter also need a significant knowledge of music.
Program directors are in charge of on-air programming in radio stations. Program directors decide what type of music will be played, supervise on-air personnel, and often select the specific songs and the order in which they will be played. Considerable experience, usually as a disc jockey, is required, as well as a thorough knowledge of music.
News-related occupations. News, weather, and sports reports are important to many television stations because these reports attract a large audience and account for a large proportion of revenue. Many radio stations depend on up-to-the-minute news for a major share of their programming. Program production staff, such as producers and announcers, also work on the production of news programs.

Reporters gather information from various sources, analyze and prepare news stories, and present information on the air. Correspondents report on news occurring in U.S. and foreign cities in which they are stationed. Newswriters write and edit news stories from information collected by reporters. Newswriters may advance to positions as reporters or correspondents.
Broadcast news analysts, also known as news anchors, analyze, interpret, and broadcast news received from various sources. News anchors present news stories and introduce videotaped news or live transmissions from on-the-scene reporters. Newscasters at large stations may specialize in a particular field. Weathercasters, also called weather reporters, report current and forecasted weather conditions. They gather information from national satellite weather services, wire services, and local and regional weather bureaus. Some weathercasters are trained atmospheric scientists and can develop their own weather forecasts. Sportscasters, who are responsible for reporting sporting events, usually select, write, and deliver the sports news for each newscast.

Assistant news directors supervise the newsroom; they coordinate wire service reports, tape or film inserts, and stories from individual newswriters and reporters. Assignment editors assign stories to news teams, sending the teams on location if necessary.

News directors have overall responsibility for the news team made up of reporters, writers, editors, and newscasters as well as studio and mobile unit production crews. This senior administrative position entails responsibilities that include determining what events to cover, and how and when they will be presented in a news broadcast.
Technical occupations. Employees in these occupations operate and maintain the electronic equipment that records and transmits radio or television programs. The titles of some of these occupations use the terms “engineer,” “technician,” and “operator” interchangeably.
Radio operators manage equipment that regulates the signal strength, clarity, and range of sounds and colors of broadcasts. They also monitor and log outgoing signals and operate transmitters. Audio and video equipment technicians operate equipment to regulate the volume, sound quality, brightness, contrast, and visual quality of a broadcast. Broadcast technicians set up and maintain electronic broadcasting equipment. Their work can extend outside the studio, as when they set up portable transmitting equipment or maintain stationary towers.

Television and video camera operators set up and operate studio cameras, which are used in the television studio, and electronic news gathering cameras, which are mobile and used outside the studio when a news team is pursuing a story at another location. Camera operators need training in video production as well as some experience in television production.

Master control engineers ensure that all of the radio or television station’s scheduled program elements, such as on-location feeds, prerecorded segments, and commercials, are smoothly transmitted. They also are responsible for ensuring that transmissions meet FCC requirements.
Technical directors direct the studio and control room technical staff during the production of a program. They need a thorough understanding of both the production and technical aspects of broadcasting; this knowledge often is acquired by working as a lighting director or camera operator, or as another type of broadcast worker.

Network and computer systems administrators and network systems and data communications analysts design, set up, and maintain systems of computer servers. These servers store recorded programs, advertisements, and news clips.
Assistant chief engineers oversee the day-to-day technical operations of the station. Chief engineers or directors of engineering are responsible for all of the station’s technical facilities and services. These workers need a bachelors’ degree in electrical engineering, technical training in broadcast engineering, and years of broadcast engineering experience.


List of Careers
Management, business, and financial occupations
General and operations managers
Sales managers
Accountants and auditors
Professional and related occupations
Computer support specialists
Electronics engineers, except computer
Electrical and electronic engineering technicians
Producers and directors
Radio and television announcers
Broadcast news analysts
Reporters and correspondents
Public relations specialists
Editors
Writers and authors
Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators
Audio and video equipment technicians
Broadcast technicians
Sound engineering technicians
Photographers
Camera operators, television, video, and motion picture
Film and video editors
Sales and related occupations
First-line supervisors/managers of non-retail sales workers
Advertising sales agents
Sales representatives, services, all other
Office and administrative support occupations
First-line supervisors/managers of office and administrative support workers
Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks
Customer service representatives
Receptionists and information clerks
Dispatchers, except police, fire, and ambulance
Production, planning, and expediting clerks
Executive secretaries and administrative assistants
Secretaries, except legal, medical, and executive
Office clerks, general
Installation, maintenance, and repair occupations
Telecommunications equipment installers and repairers, except line installers
Telecommunications line installers and repairers



Note: May not add to totals due to omission of occupations with small employment
Sales, promotions, and marketing occupations. Most workers in this category are advertising sales agents, sometimes known as account executives. They sell advertising time to sponsors, advertising agencies, and other buyers. Sales representatives must have a thorough knowledge of the size and characteristics of their network’s or station’s audience, including income levels, gender, age, and consumption patterns.

Sales work has expanded beyond the traditional role of simply selling advertising to a wide range of marketing efforts. For instance, stations earn additional revenue by broadcasting from a business, such as a dance club. Businesses also sponsor concerts or other promotions that are organized by a station. In return for sponsorship, the businesses are usually allowed to set up a booth or post large signs at the event.

Continuity directors schedule and produce commercials. Continuity directors carefully schedule commercials, taking into account both the timeslot in which a commercial is to be played, as well as competing advertisements. For example, two car dealership advertisements should not be played during the same commercial break. Continuity directors also create and produce advertisements for clients who do not produce their own.
Large stations and networks generally have several workers who spend all of their time handling sales. Sales worker supervisors, who may handle a few large accounts personally, supervise these workers. In small stations, part-time sales personnel or announcers often handle sales responsibilities during hours when they are not on the air.
General administration. General managers or station managers coordinate all radio and television station activities. In very small stations, the manager and a bookkeeper may handle all of the accounting, purchasing, hiring, and other routine office work. In larger stations, the general administrative staff includes business managers, accountants, lawyers, personnel workers, public relations workers, and others. These professionals are assisted by office and administrative support workers, such as secretaries, word processors, typists, and financial clerks.

Training and Advancement

Professional, management, and sales occupations generally require a college degree; technical occupations often do not. It is easier to obtain employment and gain promotions with a degree, especially in larger, more competitive markets. Advanced schooling generally is required for supervisory positions—including technical occupations—having greater responsibility and higher salaries.
Entry-level jobs in news or program production increasingly require a college degree and some broadcast experience. More than 1,200 institutions offer programs in communications, journalism, and related programs. As of 2004, there were 104 schools accredited by the Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communications (ACEJMC). Some community colleges offer 2-year programs in broadcasting. Broadcast trade schools offer courses that last 6 months to a year and teach radio and television announcing, writing, and production.

Individuals pursuing a career in broadcasting often gain initial experience through work at college radio and television stations or through internships at professional stations. Although these positions usually are unpaid, they sometimes provide college credit or tuition. More importantly, they provide hands-on experience and a competitive edge when applying for jobs. In this highly competitive industry, broadcasters are less willing to provide on-the-job training, and instead seek candidates who can perform the job immediately.
Some technical positions require only a high school diploma. However, many broadcast stations seek individuals with training in broadcast technology, electronics, or engineering from a technical school, community college, or 4-year college. An understanding of computer networks and software will become increasingly important as industry use of digital technology expands. Supervisory technical positions and jobs in large stations generally require a college degree.
The Society of Broadcast Engineers (SBE) issues certification to technicians who pass a written examination. Several classes of certification are available, requiring increasing levels of experience and knowledge for eligibility. The Telecommunications Act of 1996 mandated that the FCC drop its licensing requirements for transmitter maintenance; SBE certification has filled the void left by the elimination of this license.
Employees in the radio and television broadcasting industry often find their first job in broadcast stations that serve smaller markets. Competition for positions in large metropolitan areas is stronger, and stations in these areas usually seek highly experienced personnel. Because many radio and television stations are small, workers in this industry often must change employers to advance. Relocation to other parts of the country frequently is necessary for advancement.

Outlook
Employment in broadcasting is expected to increase 11 percent over the 2004-14 period, more slowly than the 14 percent projected for all industries combined. Factors contributing to the relatively slow rate of growth include industry consolidation, introduction of new technologies, and competition from other media outlets. Keen competition is expected for many jobs, particularly in large metropolitan areas, because of the large number of jobseekers attracted by the glamour of this industry. Job prospects will be best for applicants with a college degree in broadcasting, journalism, or a related field as well as relevant work experience.
Consolidation of individual broadcast stations into large networks, especially in radio, has increased as the result of relaxed ownership regulations. This trend will continue to limit employment growth as networks use workers more efficiently. For example, a network can run eight radio stations from one office, producing news programming at one station and then using the programming for broadcast from other stations, thus eliminating the need for multiple news staffs. Similarly, technical workers, upper level management, and marketing and advertising sales workers are pooled to work for several stations simultaneously. In the consolidation of the radio industry, several major companies have purchased numerous stations nationwide. These companies plan to achieve cost savings through consolidation and economies of scale, limiting employment growth.

The introduction of new technology also is slowing employment growth. Conventional broadcast equipment used to be relatively specialized; each piece of equipment served a separate function and required an operator with specialized knowledge. Newer computerized equipment often combines the functions of several older pieces of equipment and does not require specialized knowledge for operation. This reduces the need for certain types of workers, including those responsible for editing, recording, and creating graphics. In addition, increased use of remote monitoring equipment allows technical workers in one location to operate and monitor transmissions at a remote station.

Job growth also is being constrained by the use of radio and television programming created by services outside the broadcasting industry. These establishments provide prepared programming, including music, news, weather, sports, and professional announcer services. The services can easily be accessed through satellite connections and reduce the need for program production and news staff at radio and television stations.
Radio broadcasters expect continued growth in revenues as national media companies that own multiple cable stations, network television stations, and/or radio stations use their combined marketing power to include radio advertising packages with other marketing deals. The new national scope of radio networks allows radio to more effectively sell advertising to large national advertisers to better compete with television networks. The major threats to the radio industry, especially smaller, marginal stations, are from car CD (compact disk) players and from satellite radio, which functions like cable television with subscribers paying a monthly fee.
Earnings

Weekly earnings of nonsupervisory workers in broadcasting averaged $703 in 2004, higher than the average of $529 for all private industry. As a common rule, earnings of broadcast personnel are highest in large metropolitan areas. Earnings in selected occupations in broadcasting for May 2004 appear in table 2.

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For a list of schools with accredited programs in broadcast journalism, send a request to:
Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communications, University of Kansas, School of Journalism, Stauffer-Flint Hall, Lawrence, KS 66045-7575. Internet: http://www.ku.edu/~acejmc
For career information and links to employment resources, contact:
National Association of Broadcast Employees and Technicians, Communications Workers of America, 501 Third St. NW., Washington, DC 20001. Internet: http://www.nabetcwa.org
For information on broadcasting education and scholarship resources, contact:
National Association of Broadcasters, Career Center, 1771 N St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. Internet: http://www.nab.org
For descriptions of occupations in the cable industry and links to employment resources, contact:
National Cable and Telecommunications Association, 1724 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20036.
Information on many occupations employed by the broadcasting industry, including the following, appears in the 2006-07 Occupational Outlook Handbook:
Actors, producers, and directors
Advertising, marketing, promotions, public relations, and sales managers
Announcers
Broadcast and sound engineering technicians and radio operators
News analysts, reporters, and correspondents
Television, video, and motion picture camera operators and editors
Writers and editors